Econet Wireless International and the African Telecommunications Industry Essay

Activities to be completed in this presentation: Carry out a SWOT analysis for Econet Wireless International, identifying the key issues that Econet needs to address from the results of your analysis. Undertake an industry analysis of the African Telecommunications market using Porter’s Five Force Model. Using a competitor analysis framework of your choice, analyse the Big Five mobile operators in the African market Econet Wireless International is facing or faced challenges in a number of markets it entered. Identify these challenges and the sources of these challenges. What Marketing strategy options should Econet use at it tries to grow its operations (Justify your options) and what should it do to successfully implement these strategies? Introduction The selection of a growth strategy is ultimately determined by the company’s strategic goals, core competencies and strategic assets as well as by its target customers, collaborators and the overall economic, technological, socio cultural, regulatory and physical context. An integrative approach of analysing these factors is essential for the development of a successful growth strategy. Overview Econet Wireless International (hereafter to be referred to as EWI) is a Zimbabwean –owned international telecommunications group. The result of Dr. Strive Masiyiwa’s vision, Econet began in mobile telephone service in July 1998, after years of legal battles. Thus it began leading the change in the telecommunications terrain. Zimbabwe has issued only 3 mobile  telecommunication licenses to EWI, Orascom-owned Telecel and the government-owned NetOne. SWOT Analysis for Econet Wireless International As a result of the internal and external analysis, our SWOT analysis is as follows: Strengths Growth through international expansion. As EWI expands onto 3 continents in 10 countries, they are able to develop global footprint, thus increasing their capital base and securing their company. Innovative product range. They continuously developed product range, they developed into becoming a full-service communications company offering mobile telephony, traditional landline telephony, Internet services, data streaming services, transactions systems and contract services for other operators. For example, in Zimbabwe alone, they have a number of viable product offerings, namely Buddie, Ecocash, EcoFarmer, EcocashSave, Econet Solar, Econet Broadband and BusinessPartna Contract Lines. Their business model enabled them to offer quality products at competitive prices. They collaborated in the form of consortium partnerships and also joint ventures. For example, it was able to penetrate markets such as Nigeria, Kenya, Botswana, New Zealand, Lesotho, Malawi and Burundi. Their joint venture was with Altech in South Africa. The benefit of this partnership firm was listed in the Johannesburg Stock Exchange thus exposing them to a new source of capital. Their mutually formed company, Newco, would have eventually taken over almost all of Econet’s companys, allowing EWI to backward intergrate with a supplier which in terms of future growth, would enable them to develop an even wider product offering. This alliance would have been mutually beneficial, with Econet getting access to technology products, finance and administrative structures while Altech would get the opportunity to diversify riding on EWI’s mobile network. Multi-branding. EWI used it’s name in countries where it had a controlling stake such as in Nigeria, Lesotho, New Zealand, Malawi and Burundi. In countries where it was the minority shareholder, it operated under different names, namely Mascom ( Botswana), Gulfsat Maghreb SA ( Morocco). Their management structure was such that in each country, the operation was headed by a national, who knew the business climate in that country but the financial aspect was headed by an expatriate from head  office thus maintaining effective control and providing support. This encouraged business relations in those nations as the national heading the operation was able to negotiate deals from a knowledgeable point. Weaknesses Limited capital for operations, thus curtailing their growth, especially in New Zealand and Nigeria as the case study says, the consortium partners resisted a higher stake in Econet, believing they did not have the financial means and/ or resources to invest. In addition, Econet did not have enough money to finance the upgrading of its network and it came under government threat of having its licence revoked, thus they had to borrow $75 million Export-Import Bank. Also, in Kenya, their license was cancelled due to failure by the consortium to fully honour the license fee obligations within the given time frame. They failed to provide a service recovery alternative for the suspended Buddie cards in 2002 in Nigeria. The implication here was that they created low switching costs for their subscriber base, boosting the sales of their competitor. Econet gave their competitors an edge over them in Nigeria, as evidenced by the outcome of their decisions to suspend Buddie cards and also, during their subsequent reintroduction. Both times, MTN gained from these moves. In reintroducing the cards, they were not able to support the resulting call volumes. They had not had the foresight to prepare for this possibility as a result of their reintroduction. Network quality problems resulting from failure to support capacity when the Buddie lines were reintroduced. It was a situation of demand outstripping supply. They had also not expected this outcome as a result of reintroducing the previously popular lines. It’s strong dependance on their Zimbabwean operations means they weakened their efforts at expansion due to the unfavourable economic climate. They had raised capital via the Zimbabwe Stock Market but could not use it externally due to stringent government controls on the basis of hard currency remittance limitations. Their failure to capitalise on the license in New Zealand meant a loss on their part. Opportunities Their listing on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange gave them the opportunity to raise more capital. Acquisition of licenses in various countries through consortium partnerships meant they gained a foothold in countries such as  Nigeria, Kenya, Botswana, Morocco, New Zealand, Lesotho, Malawi and Burundi though from a minority position in the consortium. They were able to obtain licenses in various countries. Threats Stringent government controls. Restrictions to remit it’s foreign currencies to finance it’s operations in other countries, e.g. in New Zealand Intense competition, e.g. in New Zealand where the market was duopoly delaying their entry into that market. Low switching costs. In most of their markets, subscribers are multi-networked. As subscribers used a number of networks to maximise on particular network availability and promotions, EWI could not in depend totally on that these subscribers would be faithful. Key Issues Limited capital for operations. They could list on the Stock Exchange to attract investors. They could offer rights issues to existing shareholders, thereby attracting new capital. Network challenges. They need to upgrade their systems. They need to ensure they have enough technological infrastructure, e.g. base stations, to be able to cater for network loads. Collaboration with suppliers. Government regulations and restrictions. They need to form relationships with the host governments. Decision making. Improve their decision approach at corporate level, e.g. their decision to limit the number of days subscribers had access to the network. From the above analysis, the following threats are of high importance and Econet would do well to take notice: Stringent government controls Intense competition Low switching costs Mergers and acquisitions present an attractive and profitable opportunity thus Econet should explore this avenue further. Industry analysis of the â€Å"Big Five† using Porter’s Five Forces model. Threat of new entrants – High because: There are strong barriers to entry in terms of obtaining an operational license due to government restrictions, e.g. Zimbabwe, as shown in the case when Masiyiwa argued the case that the Telecel consortium should be  disqualified as they did not meet tender specifications. Restrictive license fees in terms of costs of getting the license such as in Kenya when EWI had their license cancelled after only two months due to failure to meet their obligation in terms of the license fee. A lot of capital is needed to start the business. It is estimated that $14 billion on average is needed as investment in the mobile phone business. Bargaining power of buyers: High because: Low switching costs such as in Nigeria when Econet opted to suspend the sale of its prepaid Buddie cards for 6 months due to quality problems, resulting in them losing subscribers. The buyer’s power is strong in Burundi because they have a population of 7 million people with only 4 mobile subscribers. Bargaining power of suppliers – High because: The government controlled operator supplier, Nitel, had strong bargaining power, as evidenced by their holding back to supply Econet with transmission links for more than a year and Econet had no option but to wait. There were few suppliers. Industry rivals – High because: Customer base grew rapidly between year 2000 and 2005 Intense competition among players in the mobile industry. Substitutes – Low because: Landlines penetration rates were low, for example, in Chad, the rate was on average one landline per 70 people while the mobile phone users expanded between year 2000 and 2005 from 15.6 million to 135 million. The overall rating is high because rivalry is high, threat of new entrants is high, bargaining power of suppliers is high and bargaining power of buyers is high. Competitor Analysis Competitor Key Strengths Key Weaknesses Perceived Strategies Key Segments Millicom First-mover position Market leader status Cost leadership Multi-branded Wide market coverage within South America Less aggressive business approach Easy to attack Low revenues in the big five Mass-marketing Multi-branding Cost leadership Low population markets International markets MTC Innovator High capital base Strong market coverage Market strength through acquisition An aggressive player High rate of economic growth Narrow product range Multi-branding Full market segmentation High population areas MTN Market coverage Market leader Strong capital base Economies of scale Resource utilisation Wide product range No multi-branding Blue ocean Leveraging existing business Growing new markets through acquisitions Research and development High population areas Niche, e.g. Middle Eastern Orascom Strong capital base through conglomeration Multi branding Cost leadership Wide product range Market leader Multi-branding Removed operations in Africa Market development High population Vodacom Strong revenue base Market leader Adequate resources for expansion Investment opportunities Least internationalised Market growth limitations Taking unnecessary risks Joint venture franchising Forward integration Domestic International Table 2 Company Capital/ Revenue (in billions $) Market Coverage (number of countries) Mobile Subscriber Number (in millions) Millicom 1.4 16 13 MTC 3 20 23 MTN 3 21 32 Orascom 2.1 9 41 Vodacom 3 5 27 From the analysis above, the market leaders are MTC, MTN and Orascom in terms of revenue. Millicom and Vodacom take the role of market challengers. In looking at mobile subscriber, Orascom and MTN are the market leaders followed by Vodacom, MTC and Millicom respectively. In terms of market coverage, MTN leads followed by MTC. Millicom is the market challenger. Orascom and Vodacom are nichers as they focus on specific markets. Challenges Legislation Government controls in the form of price controls, barring establishment of private mobile networks Trading policies License to operate Government regulations – licensing board Intense competition Duopoly in New Zealand Infrastructure problem Network support Lack of foreign currency Government foreign currency regulations in Zimbabwe Changes in exchange rate Economical meltdown in Zimbabwe Lack of capital Delay in listing on stock exchange Poor quality Buddie cards in Nigeria Product development and testing was poor Marketing Strategy Options Ansoff Matrix Market penetration – The organisation tries to grow it’s market share through sales of existing products to the present market, for example Econet Zimbabwe trying to grow its market share from 70% to 80%. They could achieve this through promotions such as offering discounted tariffs. This can be done through ensuring that they have got enough capital to support the reduction of cost on pricing. The company needs to develop budgets to steer ample resources towards promotion and advertising. Product Development – Coming up with new or modified products, for example Ecocash has been modified to include an account, that is, EcocashSave. They need to invest in a Research and Development department, tasked to come up with more innovative products. They also to need to emphasize on Total Quality Management to avoid product recalls, for example, in Nigeria where the cards had quality problems. Market development – The company seeks for and finds new markets in which to expand, for example they go into a totally new market such as penetrating Canada. They can do this through acquisition of licensing in that country.  Before acquiring the license, they would need carry out market research to ensure that that market is attractive and can be profitable for them. They should also ensure that they have enough capital to successfully implement this marketing strategy. In addition, they need to have the right management and organisational structures. Blue ocean The process of identifying an untapped market in an effort to run away from competition. For example, Econet came up with Econet Solar where they tapped into the solar provision market in an effort to ensure that their customers’ phones’ battery life did not affect their network accessibility. In these topsy-survy times where clients have become complicated, the only way to survive in business is through eliminating competition through investing in new technology and/ or Research and Development. As a result, they can realise much in terms of profit. We advise Econet to take the Ansoff matrix strategies because it covers the wide scope of marketing strates or options of growth.

Enron: Smartest Guy in the Room Essay

Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room is a documentary that was produced in 2005 as a reflection of the 2003, bestselling book with the same name. The documentary was written by Bethany Mclean and Peter Elkind. The film, produced by Alex Gibney is an explicit demonstration of how reputable corporations can tumble down because of illicit financial management. The film is about the Enron Company, which experienced enormous financial drains because of the scandals elicited by its top managerial team. Two years after the inception of the company, two traders engage in betting activities on the lucrative oil markets. This eventually leads to suspicious profits for the company, a phenomenon that raises eyebrows on the financial stand of the company. It is also discovered that Enron’s Chief Executive Officer is redirecting the company’s finances to different accounts. In demonstrating the poor financial management of Kenneth Lay, he encourages the traders to keep on making money for the company, yet he understood clearly that betting is a risky activity that could cause the company a lot of its assets. Lay finally realizes his mistakes when he sacks the traders because of wasting the company’s reserves through gambling. Their actions virtually damaged the image of Enron. When the facts about what happened to the company are exposed, Lay argues that he had no knowledge of the illicit financial endeavors. Jeffrey Skilling is brought in as the new CEO and immediately imposes his own principles about handling profits and projects. Skilling adopts a management practice that engages the company in projects without examining whether the projects have the capacity to be successful or not. This is indeed, a trait that has the capacity to taunt the image of the company in respect to the management of its assets and resources. In essence, this portrays Enron as a profit making company, even if it is not making any profit. The film also highlights on Skilling’s theory of grading employees and firing those who do not perform well, on an annual basis. In order to fulfill his endeavors for the company, Skilling appoints Clifford Baxter and Lou Pai, who heads the Enron Energy Services. Pai is an irresponsible executive who squanders money belonging to shareholders by visiting entertainment joints. Eventually, Pai resigns having cost Enron a loss of $1 billion. After selling his stock, he purchases a ranch in Colorado and becomes one of the largest landowners in the state. Despite the declining performance of Enron in the global scale, the company initiates a public relations campaign that displays itself as profitable and solid. With the short term successes that the company gets, it tries to captivate stock market analysts. Executives raise their stock prices and introduce the broadband technologies in order to distribute movies on demand, but the projects do not meet their expectations. After a series of financial irregularities, Jim Chanos and Bethany McLean expose the financial misappropriation and irregularities in stoke value. In response to the allegations, Skilling argues that McLean is unethical in his assertions. It is also found out that Andrew Fastow, one of Enron’s executives has been defrauding Enron of millions of dollars. Indeed, this is a documentary about the fall of a big corporation because of financial misappropriation (Gibney, A. and McLean, 2005). II. Analysis In reference to the documentary, it is worth pointing out that the management of the company did not articulate its financial obligations in the most feasible way. Financial management is an integral aspect in the success of a company. A company’s management should ensure that proper procedures are followed in capitalizing on its assets in order to avoid loses in the future (Bhat, 2008 p. 65). The management team’s lapse in controlling its finances led to the downfall of the company. The image of the company was put at risk because of the selfish actions of the leadership. The company’s corporate image was not able to maintain its stability, bearing in mind that the media exposed the inappropriate handling of the company’s assets. Embezzlement of the finances led to the loss of confidence in the public eye. This is a clear indication that financial obligations are pertinent in influencing the performance of a company; since, financial endowment is a primary component of expanding the image of a business enterprise (Shoffner, Shelly & Cooke, 2011 p. 36). It is also worth noting that the management’s actions affected the performance of the employees. In a company, it is extremely pertinent to invest in feasible measures that will enhance human capital. A well established human capital is instrumental in providing a viable platform for proper financial management (Jones & Spender, 2011 p. 94). When the management started a program of rating and firing employees, this created a non-cohesive environment that did not give employees a chance to thrive. In this respect, employees could not fulfill their obligations in enhancing the capacity of the company. In addition, the stakeholders to the company lost confidence in the management team of the company because it did not deliver as it was expected of them. This affected the input of the stakeholders as well as the internal and external cohesion of the company. It is also critical to assert that the company faced financial implications resulting from management’s failure to conduct itself in a competent and professional way. The company’s markets share did not achieve its expectations; since, it could not maintain stability in the stock market. The values of its shares could not compete vehemently with other companies because the company had lost its market value. Moreover, the company incurred losses in regard to its assets record through engaging in illicit financial planning. This led to the company failing to meet its financial objectives; since, it was not in a position to control its costs. The failure of a company to control its costs leads to unaccountability and the risk of loses due to poor accounting systems (Lee, 2006 p. 201). Additionally, the company experienced a lapse in its financial accounting systems in an effort to hide the misappropriation of finances. Compromising the financial accounting systems resulted to slow growth in the development of feasible accounting procedures (Hampton, 2009 p. 6). Another financial consequence to the company was the inability to control debts. The company could not keep track of its debts because its financial records had been compromised by the incompetence of the management team. The lack of proper financial returns led to inconsistency in the company’s performance; hence, leading to an internal financial crisis. In this respect, it is viable to underscore that the financial inconsistency in a company is a contributing factor in its financial meltdown (Brigham, Gapenski & Ehrhardt, 2011p. 12). III. Commentary The actions of the management team were indeed detrimental in the financial breakthrough of the company. The company’s resources were put in jeopardy because of mishandling the assets in an unethical manner in respect to business standards. The employees of the company did not have a cohesive environment to capitalize on their potential. They could not handle the products and services of the company in a professional way because the management team did not provide the platform for enhancing the cost of goods. I believe the biblical worldview as Christ would view it for the church is that whatever you do in the dark will be exposed. The Bible states that God hates the very presence of evil and it will have no place in his kingdom. So the catastrophic effect that this company had on society was abomination to what God would want for his people. God wants us to suffer with him and the end result is that we will reign with him, however lying, cheating and stealing will not have a place in heaven. As part of the management team, I would have handled things differently. Firstly, it is significant to point out that I would not allow incompetent people to control the company’s finances. Only competent people would be allowed to handle the company’s financial obligations and management of the company’s assets. Secondly, it is essential to assert that I would invest immensely in the employees of the company. I would ensure that human capital is enhanced in order to improve the image of the company. It is widely acknowledged that an empowered human resource is vital in the success of a company; hence, I would seek to empower the activities of the employees. Moreover, as part of the management team, I would ensure that transparency is enhanced in corporate governance. The duties and responsibilities of every stakeholder would be defined in an amicable way, in order to avoid the confusion that emerges. This would play a dominant role in enhancing the profitability of the company, as well as improving the image of the company in a large scale. Indeed, it is critical for any business enterprise to adopt a viable mechanism of enhancing its corporate governance (Baker, 2008 p. 78). In my opinion, I believe what happened was as a result of managerial incompetency by the management team. Lack of inconsistencies in financial breakthrough by the company led to the meltdown in the company’s assets and costs control. In this respect, I believe that accounting laws and regulators can help in avoiding this scenario again. The accounting laws will play a dominant role in keeping track of a company’s financial assets and prevent it from incurring unnecessary loses. In addition, it is critical to highlight that such law and regulators will help immensely, in holding the management accountable. The management team of a company will be able to maintain high profile accountability in maintaining the value of the company. The market share of a company is able to attain reputable standards because of using the accounting laws. Additionally, accounting laws and regulators act as instrumental platforms in identifying challenges in a company, and making the necessary decisions in overcoming the challenges. The management team of a company is able to use business intelligence in developing a way forward in solving the challenges that a company faces in respect to financial management. In order to avoid the detrimental effects of financial mismanagement, companies can adopt viable ways of managing their operations. Transparency is a critical way of enhancing the gains of a company because its operations are open to scrutiny. In addition, it is important for companies to employ competent personnel to handle its operations, ranging from cost control to managing its experiences. It is pertinent for companies to develop policy frameworks that implement feasible financial obligations.

Going for the Look Essay

Going for the Look Times continue to change and today people tend to judge a person on how they look. Companies are becoming more competitive and are looking for ways to attract customers. More retailers and companies are using the approach to hire based on appearance rather than work capability. Hiring should be based on work ethic, rather than appearance which can be discriminating. Companies all over the United States are denying people employment based on their physical appearance. In the United States people are told that everyone is given equal opportunity; which is untrue because there are people being denied employment due to how they are dressed, piercings or tattoos they have, and even weight. It is not our choice to decide what we look like. We do not decide to be tall, short, have small or big eyes, or what skin we are. People should not base hiring on physical appearance. Most retailers are now looking to hire people that look like models, characteristics being tall, slim, pretty face, & y oung. Retailers such as Abercrombie & Fitch, whose approach is to have an attractive sales force. Being a customer of Abercrombie, I have not seen an employee at Abercrombie being overweight. There employees look like beach models walking around the store. According to Mr. Serrano a former manager assistant at Abercrombie employees are told to approach and offer a job to someone who fits their store look. If someone walked into their store and they have a pretty face; employees are supposed to approach them and offer them a job even if they don’t have any retail experience. I believe that is wrong because if an older lady with retail experience were to apply for a job at Abercrombie she wouldn’t be the one hired. Statistics show that people who look better get paid more. More and more companies are using the approach to hire on appearance because they believe it attracts more customers. So many people are unemployed and looking for a job, yet retailers decide to hire on looks rather than work ethic. It’s understandable for a modeling agency to hire on appearance and looks, but a retail store like Abercrombie should not have that hiring strategy. How are older people supposed to have hope of being hired and retail stores when retailers are looking to hire young attractive people. Not everyone is born to be beautiful. Some people have better features than others. People should not be compared. Humans should be given equal employment opportunities and not be judged on how they look. AÂ  person can be beautiful on the outside and yet have an ugly personality. What is the point on hiring a pretty looking person when they can have bad customer service. I personally believe that a person should not be judged based on looks. Hiring based on physical appearance is discriminating and should stop. People around the United States are not having an equal employment opportunity. Hiring is not being based on job qualifications it is now being based on appearance. People deserve to be hired based work ethic. It is important for retailers and companies to realize everyone deserves an equal opportunity no matter how a person looks.

The Concept Of The Post-Human Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Concept Of The Post-Human - Essay Example But, the outstanding development of sciences, especially such as genetics, biotechnology, informatics, cybernetics, artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, astrophysics, cosmology and others, led to significant changes in the customary understanding of the relationship between humans and nature. Pepperell (1997) argues that new findings in the modern scientific researches pose today more questions than answers about the universe, nature and humans; moreover, â€Å"the tendency towards the developments of artificial life, synthesised intelligence, instant telecommunications and virtual reality means that we are now aware of a disappearing barrier between ‘natural’ and ‘human-made’ phenomena† (p.165). As a consequence of the shifts in the understanding of human power and beliefs in human’s superiority, an idea of â€Å"post-humanism† was born in 1940s and nowadays it has become quite popular, especially within â€Å"science-fiction-minde d† circles (Clark 2010). This paper is aimed to explore the meaning of the concept of the â€Å"post-human† and to discuss major assumed hazards for humans related to the concept, with the references to two famous movies – Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982) and the Terminator series (James Cameron, 1984; 1991). The films not only help to realise the possible threats to humanity from uncontrolled development of technologies, but, importantly, they â€Å"raise even more probing questions about the consequences of our definitions of the human† (Pyle 2000: p.124). What is the â€Å"post-human†? The early definitions of a post-human society are connected with the cybernetic movement started by Norbert Weiner in the 1940s, then ideas of the post-humanism have been popularised by American futurists (such as Stephen Hawking, Alvin Toffler and others) (Clark 2010). Gradually the concept of the â€Å"post-human† has been developing, inspiring many of na tural scientists and philosophers, as well as science-fiction writers, artists and film-makers. Generally speaking, a post-human is a conceptual imaging of â€Å"biotechnological or cybernetic systemic couplings† (Cobley 2010: p.294). Currently this concept is used in several meanings. Pepperell (1997) suggests three cases of the term’s using: (1) it is used to indicate the end of the Humanism period in the historical process of the world social development; (2) it is used to emphasise the transformation of a human being’s concept, mentioned above; (3) it refers to the current persistent convergence of technologies and human organisms, leading to â€Å"a future state of humanity in which biology is merged with technology† (p.174). The latter meaning draws the most attention in the world research society and causes heat debates, especially between the so called transhumanists and their opponents. According to the definition of Marx More: â€Å"Posthumans will be persons of unprecedented physical, intellectual and psychological ability, self-programming and self-defining, potentially immortal, unlimited individuals. Posthumans have overcome the biological, neurological, and psychological constraints evolved into humans. †¦Our personalities having been transferred â€Å"into† more durable, modifiable, and faster, and more powerful bodies and thinking hardware† (cited in Pepperell 1997: p.175). Bostrom (2003) explains what advantages the posthuman persons will have in comparing with the current state of human beings. Among them there are: a higher level of intellectuality and consciousness; resistance to many diseases and nonsusceptibility to aging;

Laughing stock Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Laughing stock - Movie Review Example This essay is a response on the performance of the â€Å"Laughing stock† play. Laughing stock, directed by Charles Morey, is an energetic backstage farce and affectionate view into the world of theatre with an appealing story about the bonds that form among actors at a minor, underfunded summer stock theatre. This play is about a group, which is trying to accomplish a certain goal against all odds. In the play, Business manager, Craig, is amazed with the high rise in number of pencils the actors are using. The technical director, Henry, is establishing sets, lighting and special effects for three shows without a budget while the funny and softhearted stage manager, Sarah, is a reality check when things get out of control (Bannon, 2012). In the acting company, there was Ditzy Mary, who is not bright and Tyler who wants venture into Dracula and wonders what it means by being Undead. Vernon always has a comment about everything while Richfield who is always absent minded and cannot remember the names of the characters in â€Å"Dracule, The Prince of the Undead† and keeps forgetting the props. Jack who is young, talented and hardworking is ready to abandon theater for law school while Daisy is knitting at the backstage and wishing everyone well on their opening. Braun, neophyte actor and prop master, forgets which play he is involved in and loses Yorick’s skull for â€Å"Hamlet† (Bannon, 2012). The actors’ performance was perfect, and the audience really enjoyed it as they laughed their hearts out. The whole audience was keen and attentive, and this proves that the play was interesting and entertaining throughout the whole session. The whole audience clearly heard and understood the actors who were energetic in the presentation of the play. The play was delivered in a professional manner including the way the actors utilized the stage in their movements. The standing ovation they kept receiving from the audience, further encouraged

Chapter2 (US Foriegn Policy) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chapter2 (US Foriegn Policy) - Essay Example The  U.S.A’s â€Å"Secretary of State†Ã‚  is officially the  foreign minister  and is in charge of handling all foreign relationships with other countries of the world. Despite the fact that the  president  possesses vital authority for deciding upon the foreign policy for US, the policy is embedded with certain guidelines and unchangeable fixtures which define the  national interest along with certain policies towards other countries, regional blocks and America’s own interests in the affairs of other countries. The policy is altered with respect to certain emerging conditions such as that of 9-11 situation after which the American foreign policy towards the Muslim world, especially the Middle East Block drastically moved towards new paradigms (Rahman, 2002). United States has battled for absolute supremacy since World War II and it has been somewhat successful in its aim. Middle East has been in the eyes of US interests and a part of its foreign pol icy since number of years. The first epoch of determining and shaping US policy interests in the region initiated after World War II during 1945 till 1973. Basic US interests were to have a free access to oil reserves and build relationships with major countries of the Middle East. As a part of its policy it also included to protect Israel’s regime after the Arab-Israel War of 1948. The second phase of US policy’s were defined in 1973-74 because of the Arab oil embargo of 1973 which caused to a oil price hike and economic recessions in major parts of the world. As a result of this, US had to re-examine its policies and make different problem solving approach to handle the situation. The approaches that were deployed as a part of US foreign policy were to increase the dependence of oil exporting countries by protecting them and increasing the arm sales to those countries. Orientalism was a part of US problem solving approach during that era and further it tried to preve nt Soviet Union to take part in affairs of the region since it was a counterpart to US at the time. The Islamic revolution of Iran in 1979 marked the third stage of reshaping the US policies in the Middle East. The revolution was considered as a terrible threat to US interests since it gave rapid rise to anti-Americanism among the Muslim countries and kept the oil prices soaring. This called for a new thinking as the traditional policies of Orientalism were not appreciated. The Orientalism theory was based on Western cooperation with the authoritarian Middle East regimes which were corrupt and rich which sparked a growing feeling of alienation among the minor countries of the Middle East (Sadowsaki, 1993). During the phase, US continually struggled to establish peace among the Arab–Israel Countries and at the same time it aimed to have a steady supply of oil at reasonable prices. The fourth and major phases of US foreign pol

Team as an Ideal Design of Job Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Team as an Ideal Design of Job - Essay Example The paper will try examining issues that revolve around the work of the team and their significance in working with the managers. It is possible for managers to create a work unit by just bringing together many individuals with different skills. Before a manager designs a task that they need to be handled, it is always clear that they have a picture of the nature of the outcome they desire. They also have idea on which kind of input is required and what would be the process needed to realize the objective. It is through this understanding that the manger may decide to have a group of individuals to execute the work. This kind of approach has been associated with an authoritarian guidance by some manager. Workers who are involved in a process like this are always denied their autonomy and have very low worker interdependence. The study shows that the productivity of a work force is usually increased when workers have a high sense of interdependence as opposed to when workers are just pulled together to execute certain tasks. It is therefore right to say that team task design is a good design that managers can use to push for results to be gotten but only if the worker interdependence is enhanced. It should not be assumed that team interdependent is the sole mechanism that can be used by mangers to help in utilizing the team and produce successfully. There are some other ways through which teams can be used to realize the objective of an organization. A team as a unit requires some level of self direction and self management to realize certain objective. When teams have control of themselves, then they tend to engage in participatory approach of work, which also relieves the top management from micromanaging the teams and ever getting concerned with small matters that can be addressed at lower levels. It is imperative that mangers delegate duties to the juniors so that they may get

History of the tatto culture in New York city Essay

History of the tatto culture in New York city - Essay Example Tattooing culture was re- introduced in the Western world in the sixteenth century with Anglo- Saxons kings of England getting tattooed. Since then, the culture of tattooing has been gaining prominence gradually across the world. Presently, it is normal to find people with a tattoo in virtually all parts of the world including those countries that are considered too religious and conservative. In fact, since the 1990s, tattoos have been considered as one of the major parts of Western and indeed global fashion, that cuts across gender, age, and economic classes (Gilbert 6-7). This discussion will focus on the history of the tattoo with specific reference to New York City (NYC), United States. Before discussing the history of tattoo in NYC, it is important to understand what tattoo means. A tattoo refers to a design, which is carved permanently into the skin through the insertion of indelible ink into the skin’s dermis layer in order to change the pigment. On humans, tattoos are a type of modification to the body while on animals they are mostly used for identification purposes. The word tattoo came from the term ‘tatua’, which a Tahitian word is meaning to mark (Rainer 11). In recent times, the tattoo has gained social acceptance and is very popular in the US. It is estimated that, in 2010, about 38% of the US’ Generation Y had tattoos. The culture of tattooing in the US dominantly took root in the 1800s. This art was sparked by the immigrants around this time.

The Role of Social Media as a PR Tool Research Proposal

The Role of Social Media as a PR Tool - Research Proposal Example The paper tells that the choice of the social media platform as a component of the public relation strategy for VIVA is based on strong grounds. It does not only bring together friends, families, colleagues and acquaintances together but also strangers in remarkable number through its networking characteristic. Â  It is important to note that, in Bahrain, Internet is available to 961,228 users or about 77% of the entire population. The statistics place the country as a regional Internet leader, besting most countries in the Middle East in terms of subscription, usage and freedom of access. This underpins how the social media enjoys strong popularity in the country, figuring prominently in recent upheavals such as the 2013 unrest. Depending on the point of view, such role could be positive or negative. But, for the purposes of this paper, this role is most certainly beneficial. It highlights the potency of social media as a communication tool and its ability to persuade or influence VIVA’s market to action. This proposal is divided into four parts: the objectives of the study, the literature review, methodology and the method of analysis. The first section outlines four proposed research goals. The literature review section cites and analyzes the available sources that cover the theoretical and empirical work on social media and its capability as public relations tool. The materials used include secondary and primary sources, consisted of documents published by the organization as well as books, journals and online content.

Social issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Social issues - Essay Example If the figure of 200 000 backstreet abortions is used (assuming that it is accurate which highly questionable) and these backstreet abortions are now performed legally, then this will cost the state R200 million a year! Consider also that the abortion increased 16 fold in the USA when it was legalised - from 100 000 to 1,6 million a year.1 Can the Health Department cope with this In terms of the economy, abortion undermines future growth. It is still too early for us to see the effects now, but the disastrous consequences are going to be visable very soon. A recent study shows that abortion is going to be an economic disaster. The report calculates that for every European and American who is aborted, it costs their economy $1 5000 000. In terms of today's (1994) money adjusted to present value, the average American or European spends over $1 177 000 in his lifetime in terms of housing, medicine, clothes, transport and so on. He also pays over $440 000 in taxes in his lifetime. This makes $1 617 000 in total. So this means that the doctor may get $300 for murdering that baby which immediately helps the abortion industry. However, there are other industries that will be adversely affected. The cost to America alone of their aborted babies is well over $41 trillion! These figures are too large for any of us to grasp, but understand that America's entire deficit is $4 trillion, while their abortions will cost 10 times more than even the total debt of America. What will the cost for South Africa be2 2. Backstreet Abortions Increase Will those who perform these abortions have either the equipment or the knowledge to deal with complications that may occur Count the cost in terms of money and human lives that will result from botched legal abortions. Speaking before the 93rd Congress of the US, Senator James Buckley stated: "Data from foreign countries having far longer experience with legalised abortion than we have had in the US, suggest that legalisation has no effect on the criminal abortion rate. In at least three countries, the criminal abortion rate has actually risen since legalisation. Legalised abortion moves the back alley abortionists into the front office where their trade can be practised without fear of criminal prosecution."3 Dr Christopher Tietze, an abortion advocate, concedes: "Although one of the major goals of the liberalisation of abortion laws in Scandinavia was to reduce the incidence of illegal abortion, this was not accomplished. Rather as we know from a variety of sources, both criminal and total abortions increased." [original emphasis]4 Regardless of whether abortions are legal or not, some women will have abortions and some women will die from complications. Certainly all the babies will die. However, legalising abortion greatly increases the number of abortions. In various surveys 40-85% of the women said they would not have aborted their babies if it had been illegal. 5 We must not legalise procedures that kill the innocent just to make the killing process less dangerous. 3. Parallels between Abortion & Slavery Slavery in centuries past and abortions in this century were defended and promoted by the same arguments. Consider the case in the USA: In 1857, in the Dred Scott case, the US Supreme Court decided, by a 7 to 2 majority, that according to the US Constitution, black

Leadership Communication Styles Inventory Essay Example for Free

Leadership Communication Styles Inventory Essay As a manager or leader of an organization of any kind, the power and ability to effectively lead others are in the choices made to build a healthy, motivational, and productive relationship with people on your team. We all influence others in some way, its Just that we seldom realize that we do or how we do it. Power in the workplace has traditionally been defined as force, dominance, assertiveness, strength, invincibility, and authority. In forward thinking corporations, power requires a commitment and a plan of action (Hale, 2010). Power and influence are somewhat interchangeable. Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. Power is not the act of changing someonws attitudes or behavior; it is only the potential to do so. You might feel powerful or think you have power over someone else, but this is not power unless you truly have the capacity to influence that person (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). One of the hardest lessons of management is that practically everything that has to be done must be done by others. Manager ¤Ã‚ ¬ws duties not only include directing employees ut controlling the budget, assets, and other Jobs within the organization as well. Leadership is the ability to get people to do what they don ¬wt want to do and like it. In other words, the core problem for leaders in any organization involves getting others to do what is required to accomplish the organization ¤es goals (Michelson). The concept of power and its application to leadership and management has gotten a bad reputation. Terms such as power hungry, abuse of power and corrupted by power have diluted powerws real use and meaning and deprived some leaders f the opportunity to understand and use various forms of power to good purposes (Wood, 2010). I like to believe people misuse their power simply because they have it and are unaware of it. When used in a positive, moral, and ethical manner, power is an excellent resource. It requires the perception of dependence, so people might gain power by convincing others that they have something of value, whether or not they actually control that resource. Consequently power exists when others believe that you control resources they want (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 010). People rely on their emotion more frequently than they realize to make decisions, so to become a more powerful influencer, it is wise to consider othews values, personality, and intelligence and express confidence in the personws ability to accomplish the Job. The type of power applied affects the type of influence the power holder has over the other person or work unit. Everyone has power and I d believe that to be a bad thing. The issue becomes what kind of power a person has and how it is used. The most powerful source is based on one osition within an organization and the authority given in that position (Wood, 2010). An abusive boss can lose respect and influence from their team members. As a leader, your influence and power are not only about getting the Job done, itws about the relationships you develop in the workplace. A supervisor on my Job is retiring in a couple ot months and it seems ner whole attitude and demeanor nas changed. She seems to be on a quest to get all the people she wants out of the company and all that she wants promoted before she leaves. The influence and respect that she once possessed is no longer apparent or given to her and the orale in the office is very low. Her tactics to get the Job done are threatening, humiliating, and demeaning for some of the employees. They are afraid to go above her for the fear of retaliation, so they wait and hope that their Jobs are safe until she retires. French and Raven, social psychologists, identified five sources of power legitimate, coercive, reward, expert, and referent that help the dependent person directly or indirectly achieve his or her goals. Legitimate, reward and coercive are sources of power granted formally by the organization and informally by co-workers; hey are positional powers (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). Legitimate power is an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. It depends on mutual agreement from those expected to abide by this authority (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). True and lasting power comes from being a leader worthy of respect and admiration. If you treat people with dignity and respect, you will build a trusting relationship and people will look up to you, listen to what you say, and want to be like you. Reward power derived from the person ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions. Managers have power over the distribution of organizational rewards such as pay, promotions, time off, vacation schedules, and work assignments (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). This power comes with the position and can be taken away if the position is removed. Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment. Employees also have coercive power to ensure that co-workers conform to team norms (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). You have this kind of power when youwre in a position to punish others if they don ¬wt do what you want. People fear the consequences of not doing what has been asked of them. Expert and referent powers are based on an individuws personal power. These powers are based on charisma, likeability, and positive feelings the leader generates among subordinates (Wood, 2010). There is research suggesting that charismatic leadership is negatively related to harmful behaviors in the workplace. For example, transformational leadership was negatively associated with safety accidents which harisma is a large component of (Hale, 2010). These powers originate from the power holders characteristics and are power bases brought to the organization. Expert power is an individualws or work uws capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that others value (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). This power is based on what you know and will quickly gain you respect and influence in the workplace. It is all about knowing your Job and doing it well and not being afraid in learning all that you can. It could potentially be the basis for a managerial role for an employee. Referent power is a function ofa perso ¬ws interpersonal skills which allows others to identify with them, like them, or respect them and is associated with charismatic leadership (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). People are well liked and are considered role models because of their connection and concern for other people. People who are well-liked and respected nave a tremendous amount ot reterent power. A wise leader knows now and when to apply the right amount of power to influence an individual, group, or situation to move an agenda forward (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). In order to be an effective leader, a person cannot rely solely on either of these positions of power. Leading by example, offering rewards, or threatening punishments all can be used as power tools to accomplish goals, however more power can be gained by sharing it among the team in a more subtle and counterintuitive way (Wood, 2010). If you want your team to be ethical and respectful of each other, I believe the example should start from the top. Using influence tactics well requires a healthy combination of interpersonal, communication, presentation, and assertiveness techniques, verbal skills such as asserting, probing, ersisting, speaking conversationally, and willingness to ask for favors ( (Selling and Persuaion Techniques ). Influence refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someonws attitudes or behaviors (McShane, Steven L, Mary Ann Von Glinow, 2010). You may try to exert your influence through coercion and manipulation and you might even get things done but that isn ¬wt really influencing. Thatws forcing people to do what you want them to do and often against their will. Effective leaders use combinations of various strategies for different purposes under different onditions which can be classified under three categories: retribution, reciprocation, and reason (Michelson).

Venice and Belmont Essay Example for Free

Venice and Belmont Essay Compare and contrast the different worlds and different values of Venice and Belmont as presented in Act 1 of The Merchant of Venice Venice and Belmont are cities of contrast. Using examples of language, style of expression and characters I shall compare and contrast Venice as the centre of trade and wealth to the fictional Belmont, a fairytale place where love and happiness are the main concerns. I shall also consider the society that is depicted in each location and look at how this links to views of the audience both in Shakespeares time and in present day. The audience is introduced to the world of Venice in the first scene. Venice is concerned almost solely with wealth and trade, which mirrors the view the Shakespearean audience would have had of it at the time. The language used by Antonio, Salarino and Solanio is dominated with the subject of trade. Your mind is tossing on the ocean There where your argosies with portly sail The style of language Shakespeare uses varies between Venice and Belmont. The characters in Venice talk in verse using elaborate conceits to show their intelligence as was fashionable at the time. Even when attempting to cheer Antonio up, Salarino uses this as a chance to show off his wit and intelligence. This compares to the simpler but still humorous language used by the women in Belmont and suggest that perhaps it is not possible to be as open in Venice as in Belmont. I will do anything, Nerissa, ere I will be married to a sponge The merchants are more concerned with appearing successful then discussing their real feelings. A different interpretation of this is that as the first scene contains only men they are attempting to show off, as opposed to the women in Belmont who are happier to talk openly together. With speech full of references to business, Salarino and Solanio convey worry and anxiety towards Antonios ventures. This emphasises the fact that the main concerns of Venice are financial. My wind cooling my broth Would blow me to an ague when I thought What harm a wind too great might do at sea This preoccupation with wealth and trade is further established when the issue of Antonios sadness is discussed. The first reason for his melancholy that is immediately given, is the idea that he is concerned about his merchandise being lost at sea. Believe me sir, had I such ventures forth The better part of my affection would Be with my hopes abroad It is only after Antonio dismisses this as the reason for his sadness that the idea of love is put forward. This contrasts greatly with Belmont where Portias sadness is immediately explained as being down to the fact she cannot choose her husband. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one, nor refuse none? The main concern of Belmont is quickly established as not the qualms of merchants but of a fathers love for his daughter. Love is the governing factor in Belmont and dominates the conversation between Portia and Nerissa. But what warmth is there in your affection towards any of these princely suitors This emphasis on love rather than riches contrasts with the leading concern of Venice. Even when Bassanio and Antonio are discussing Portia as a potential wife they do so in terms of wealth. The first words that Bassanio uses to describe Portia are a lady richly left. He describes her worth in terms of merchandise, referring to her as the golden fleece, a risky venture but one that if he succeeds, will make him very wealthy. This attitude of love being reliant on wealth is mirrored in the loan that Antonio gives to Bassanio. In Venice it is only through lending him money that Antonio can express his depth of friendship with Bassanio while in Belmont love is discussed openly. A rather unpleasant comparison between Venice and Belmont is the racism apparent in both societies. The scene between Antonio and Shylock demonstrates the prejudice against Jews in the 16th Century. You call me misbeliever, cut-throat dog, And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine This prejudice towards others of a different culture is continued in Belmont. Portia dismisses the Prince of Morocco before even meeting him saying she would never marry him if his skin were black. If he have the condition of a saint, and the complexion of a devil, I had rather he should shrive me than wive me. The idea of risk plays an important role in both Venice and Belmont but there are differences between them which mirrors the attitudes of the two societies. In Venice the ventures that are made in Act 1 both concern money. The first deals with the risk Antonio has taken by tying up so mush of his wealth on merchandise at sea. The second risk that is taken in Venice is born of hatred and greed, when Shylocks dislike of Antonio leads him to make the bond of flesh Let the forfeit Be nominated for an equal pound Of your fair flesh, This differs from the casket test that suitors must take in order to marry Portia. Although it deals with a great risk, on choosing the wrong casket the man may never marry, being set in Belmont the venture deals with love rather than money. Despite this, money is still a factor as the test deals with the worth of Portia over the value of the casket. The distinctions between Venice and Belmont may have been viewed differently in Shakespearean times from present day. The casket test was a common myth in Shakespeares time and his linking this folk tale to Belmont emphasise it as a fictional, fairytale location detached from the rest of the world. A Shakespearean audience would have made this link but in the 20th Century this idea may not be understood. The idea of marrying for money rather than love as Bassanio intends to do in scene 1 would have been familiar concept in the 16th Century. Today this would probably looked upon with disapproval. This is also true of the treatment of Shylock in the play. Present day audiences would probably view this very much as an anti-Semitic play because they have been influenced by changing attitudes to religion and by the plays use as a propaganda tool in the Second World War. Mark you this, Bassanio. The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose A Shakespearean audience would have found this treatment of Jews as customary and would have been much more aware of the central theme of the play being love versus greed rather than just a display of anti-Semitism. The differences between the world of the Venice and Belmont are subtle but numerous. Through Shakespeares use of language and characters Venice is quickly established as the seat of the wealthy trading world. Belmont is seen much more as a fictional location more concerned with love and happiness then ships and trade. The varying styles in which Shakespeare writes emphasises these differences. The context in which the play is performed has greatly changed since the 16th Century. A present day audience would view this s a much more anti-Semitic play then a Shakespearean audience would have done. Likewise 16th Century spectators would have been much more aware of the differences between the two locations. Attitudes continue to change and Shakespeares plays continue to be performed. Undoubtedly interpretations and attitudes towards this play will continue to evolve.

The History Of Indonesia

The History Of Indonesia Intercultural management is an emerging but increasingly important area of study. Intercultural management are on work forces that function in different cultural backgrounds. These differences can be either external, where an organization operates across national and ethnic cultures, or internal, where an organization operates across company differences, branches or regions. Cultures express different values and priorities when they make and implement decisions. These values influence work relationships, whether between superior and subordinate, peers, international joint venture partners, managers in headquarters and subsidiaries, and others. Intercultural Management subject is extremely important because of the cultural diversity and ethnic that exists within the organisation today. Specifically, with regard to global organisations, it try to settle the unevenness between global and local concerns by proposing a framework that combines a new understanding of culture with a classica l leadership approach. It is also about accommodating a range of structural and behavioural dimensions that address different facets of organizational functioning. Intercultural management is expensive, but also give away a high return on investment. The objective is to achieve more effective cross-cultural practice. In this assignment, students of Intercultural Management are required to experience a Field Trip to Indonesia, Medan. Students are expected to carry culture analysis and findings on the problems that are asked to fulfil the requirement of this module and prepared a report in the end. 2.0 Background of Country Visited, Indonesia Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world by number of population which expanse between the Indian and Pacific Oceans with thousands island scattered across. Its closest neighbours are the new country of East Timor which formerly a part of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Malaysia. It is an archipelago country, made up of 17,508 islands with a land area of 1,905 thousand square kilometres. It has 33 provinces populated by 242 million people. From the western tip of Sumatra to the eastern edge of Papua, it runs along the equator for 5000km. Indonesia has been an independent republic for more than fifty years and its capital city is Jakarta. Indonesias peoples are regional interests, diverse and cultural elements differ widely. 2.1 History of Indonesia Indonesian history, hominid fossils was found by Eugene Dubois in 1809 near Trinil village, East Java. Human immigration occurred 3000 BC. These immigrants are either came from the Pacific islands or southern China and brought their language, Austronesia with them. Since they arrived in a small group and set up around the coast, Austronesia language was quickly diversified with distant descendant of Java Man. However, Bahasa Indonesia is the national language of Indonesia. At the 5th century, Hinduism first came to Indonesia with the advent of Indian merchants as on purpose act of preaching by the Brahmans. By this time Indonesias trading partners was southern China, hence the influence of Buddhism also started to take part. In the 11th century, merchants brought Islam in. By the time, there was no centre of Indonesian Islamic culture and this leads to weakness when the Dutch arrived. Dutch East India Company ruled Indonesia from 1602 to 1799 and stayed until 1942 as a Dutch colony. Before the Dutch returned to claim their colonies from 1942-1945, the Japanese occupied the islands. Sukarno declared independence and was appointed as president after the surrender of Japanese in August 1945. 2.2 Indonesias Political System Republic of Indonesia came into existence in 1945 followed by the federal government under the United Republic of Indonesia. Based on the 1945 constitution, it then returned to the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. The 1945 constitution controls responsibilities and position of state officials, duties, their authorities and relationships between government institutions. (executive, legislative and judicial). The Peoples Consultative Assembly (MPR), being the highest state institution promulgates the constitution, decide state policy guidelines and appoint or dismiss the president and vice president. Direction of the government, laws and drafts regulations is monitored by The House of Representatives (DPR). Position of other high-level state institutions, including the Supreme Court and the House of Representatives are occupied by the president, who is also the Head of State and Head of Government. The President also carries out the mandate of the MPR, implementing the state policy guidelines, and appointed ministers and heads of non-ministry with the ministry (the Attorney General, Police and Armed Forces) that assist in the implementation of these tasks. The Supreme Court is the judicial branch of the State around the executive and legislative branches. Governments finances are examined by The State Audit Board. The State Audit Board is reported to the Peoples Legislative Assembly, the body that approves the inspected Expenditure and State Income. On matters related to issues of economic, political, the military and socio-cultural, The Supreme Advisory Council provides advice to the President on request. 2.3 Indonesias Economic With inflation reducing, solid growth and falling unemployment, Indonesia is currently enjoying positive economic conditions. Indonesia has recently become more recognized for providing investment opportunities as there has been a lot of foreign interest. Due to the rich deposits of natural resources, Indonesia has become a major beneficiary of the strong growth in China and other developing countries. This helps the strong economic growth through foreign investment and international competitiveness. Inflationary pressures continue to be a problem for Indonesia although the rate of growth has been strong, driven by higher food and utilities including fuel for the countrys domestic demand grows rapidly. Indonesias central bank (Bank Indonesia) to take action to help restrain inflation as it began to pose a threat to economic growth. Through Monetary policy tightening, inflation has been reduced to a more manageable rate. The unemployment rate in Indonesia has reduced since 2005-2006 i n line with the strong growth of the economy. Corruption continues to be a major problem for the Indonesian economy which can have the effect of distribution. By reducing economic growth, this affects income inequality and scarcity. 2.4 Infrastructure and Technological Information Dial-up service over noisy line is commonly used to access the Internet. Most of these wireless access points are in cities. Wireless infrastructure may be away to go for deploying Internet for rural, under-served, poor Indonesian neighbourhood. However, issues in rural areas would not only telecommunication or Internet access technology, it is more on the demand, people, social, cultural side as well as the higher stumbling block in the regulatory framework. Need on information and knowledge is virtually non-existence in such areas. The major problem is mainly lack of content written in Indonesian. Speak-and listen is much common way to communicate in Indonesian culture as compared to read and- write. 2.5.1 Population Indonesia, with number of 234 million populations, is the worlds fourth most populated country. There are more than 300 people per square mile (160 per square km), which four time more than the population in the United States. The rate of population grow in Indonesia is around 1.5% per year which means this country will have 282 million population by the year 2025 and more than 315 million population by the year 2050. About 40 % of the population is urban while 45% of the population is engaged in agriculture. 2.5.2 People In Indonesia most islands can be considered as multiethnic, which large and small groups forming geographical enclaves. In ethnic areas, arguments between members of different ethnic groups can be resolved by either the leader or the two groups, by feud or by the courts. In many regions with settled populations, a customary settlement is honoured over a court one, and many rural areas are peaceful havens. 2.5.3 Language There are over 650 dialects and languages are spoken in Indonesia. Since they lived isolated from one and another, unique cultures are developed different islands. However, they local languanges are Sundanese, Javanese, Balinese, Sasak are still being used in some other parts although Bahasa Indonesia is known as the national language. Bahasa Indonesia is a variation of the Malay language. Dutch and English are also often used, this is because Indonesia was a colony of Dutch and English where this both language has became the international language of business during that time. 2.5.4 Religion Indonesia has a largest Muslim population practicing Islam. Besides Islam, Protestants, Catholics, Hindus, and Buddhists are also practiced. Form hybrid religious practices, Islam have mixed with traditions and local customs. A Javanese Muslim from rural may go the mosque to pray but later on pray at the grace of local Catholic saint. Since the 1500s, Christianity has already been practised. It was then influenced by the Protestant and Roman Catholic with arrival of Portuguese and Dutch. Buddhism has a long history in Indonesia since the Srivijaya dynasty and it lasted from the 7th-14th century. In Indonesia, Hinduism is the oldest religion. The Hindus lived at Bali, Hinduism came from India has been greatly adapted by Indonesians to fit it ancestral practices, animist and local. 2.5.4 Ethnic/Culture Groups More than 500 different ethnic groups live in this country. In North Sumatera ethnic groups are the Malay, the Sudanese, the Acehnese, the Bataks, are the big majority of the local population.  Migration, to the North Sumatra to seek fortune has given these people a lot of the regions agricultural and commercial activities. Largest group of ethnic is The Javanese, followed by followed by Sundanese, and the Malays. The Javanese are given named after the island on which their culture expands.    2.5.5 Cultural Practices and Tradition Wayang or shadow theatre is well known because of the Javanese. The Javanese also created Batik. The Sundanese and Javanese somewhat can understand each other with some linguistic connection. The Javanese and the Sudanese are both Muslims. Both cultures, the Sudanese and Javanese perform wooden puppets called wayang goleks. Kendang a local drum of Sundanese provides faster rhythm than the one usually found in Javanese culture. The Batak houses are separated into three levels symbolising a threefold division of the cosmos (upper world, the underworld and the earth). The Toba church are the largest church in Indonesia, they were once obvious and early target for Christian European missionaries. In traditional Batak community, woven fabrics play an important part. The woven fabrics are not only as clothing, but as an important gift in the ritual, which to strengthen the ties that exist between the symbol and the group of related people. 3.1 Common Business/ Economic Activity Based on my observation, the local people of Medan mostly make a living by opening small businesses. There are dozens of food streets along the roads and hawkers centre around Medan. From Chinese home-cooking style food, to Bataks grilled dish, to spicy Malay sambal, and tasty Indian curry, the city is definitely a food heaven for locals and tourists. Pajak Ikan Lama is the most famous traditional clothes market sells souvenirs, fabrics, handbags, belts, shirts, pants and local food. It also a local market which located near Dataran Merdeka best known for textiles and batik. In Berastagi, vegetables and fruits market known as the main economic activities of the local people. This area is quite cold in climate and highly fertile which situated between Mount Sibayak and Mount Sinabung. Besides vegetables and fruits, Berastagi is also known for producer of sugar cane, flowers, and rice. Most uneducated local men in Medan earn a living as a becak driver. It is very easy to start a busine ss as a becak driver because becak is a public transport in Medan. Due to large population, the labour cost in Medan is very cheap which leads the local people to starts their own businesses. 3.2 Level of Education/ Job Requirement The highest educational level in Berastagi and Lake Toba is until Primary. Where else in Medan the highest education level is until middle school (secondary). The Hotel receptionist with a bachelor degree who speaks English stated that her monthly salary is only Rp.2, 000,000. In Lake Toba, we interviewed the captain that drive us Samosir Island. He stated that he is also the staff of Carolina Hotel but does not want state his salary when we asked him. A becak driver usually did not have a proper education and had finished elementary school. They speak bahasa Indonesia and only speaks few words In English. To become a becak driver was one of the limited choices they had to earn. The  income  of  becak drivers  is unstable and varies on a daily basis.  The monthly income  was 600000 Rupiah with 7 hours working daily. Sometimes they earn much money but sometimes they wait for passengers for several days and earn nothing at all. The fees they charge the passengers are moreov er negotiable. They do not have any fixed charge for each trip. It very much depends on who uses their services and how good they are in bargaining. At strategic places in cities or towns, people can easily find becak drivers waiting in groups for passengers. Usually they can be found at bus terminals or train stations to serve people who have just got off from trains or buses. We usually get short becak ride for 5000 Rupiah to 10000 Rupiah but more for than 10minutes rides will cost around 15000 Rupiah. Most drivers will charge for 30000 Rupiah for foreigners then will came down to 15000 Rupiah when spoken to in Bahasa Indonesia. 3.3 Taboos/ Disturbing Cultural Practices It seemed that the King has many warriors and one of the famous warriors would go totally naked when going for wars. For Batak people, showing your genitals is a taboo.  The Batak traditionally allowed polygamy, but it didnt come up very often because the man had to be wealthy enough to support the additional wives and children. After Christian conversion, this practice became taboo. Once again, the Christian answer was given. In reality, tribal people usually have a number of superstitions and rituals associated with death. Some tribes actually relocate the entire village if one person dies. According to Dr. Fernandez, the Batak would burn the house where the dead person had lived, and no one would live in that house again. This superstition had the practical function of preventing the spread of communicable diseases. In certain tribe such as the Batak, raised breeds of dogs and slaughtered them for their meat. This may be for some medicinal purposes benefits attributed to differe nt parts of a dog or as an alternative for other meat.  Eating dog meat is usually associated with their culture, who cooks a traditional dog-meat stew. I find this most disturbing cultural practice because in other part the world dogs views  as a companion and humans best friend. It is cruel and disgusting to consume dogs meat. Apart from cultural  practice, it is not acceptable  by other groups of people. 3.4 Bargaining and Negotiating Bargaining is usual in small shops and markets in Medan, Tomok and Berastagi. Bargaining works by asking the price and slowly increases the offer until a compromise is reached. We bargain for everything in here. It is fine to say no, or to ignore the seller. But, we only bargain when we really want to buy something. With so many shops competing, it is easy to find the good price.   The locals usually speak in quiet, gentle tones. However, this only reflects their politeness and respect for others. Because being friendly and saving face are so important in this culture, communication is generally very indirect. The Indonesian usually prefers to do business with others who treat them with respect and genuinely, it is important to demonstrate similar behaviours. Causing embarrassment to another person may cause a loss of face for all parties involved and can be disastrous for business negotiations Building lasting and trusting personal relationships is therefore critically important t o most Indonesians, who expect to establish strong bonds prior to closing any deals. The large population in Medan caused traffic jam. We really feel impressed on how the drivers negotiate and tolerate among themselves when they uses the road. They will normally hon to let other drivers to know that they want to go other side or change the lane. 3.5 Cultural Implication on Advertisement Religions affect consumption behaviours and the purchase pattern. A high level of familiarity with the local  culture  is the significant  impact  on the effectiveness of marketing strategies. One of the television advertisements that I go through is regarding McDonalds Delivery. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uxv73s6YQ88) The advertisement is about young man wanted to take his car to buy dinner/ supper. But his car tyre got punctured, so he decided to get some satay at the nearby street. When he went there, the satay man says he sold off the satays. In the end, he ended up calling for Mc Delivery. From this, I can see that the Mc Delivery advertisement is connected to their local preferences. Satay is one of their local food so the advertisement appealing to their taste. McDonalds in  Indonesia now has McSatay, Mc Rice where its known that Indonesia basic food is rice served with egg. McDonals in Indonesia does not offer pork burger as most of the population are Muslims. One of the outdoor advertisements that I came across is a politician poster behind one of the becak that we took. Since only the low income group of people who will frequently take the becak, the advertisement of politician figure will appeal into local people of needs for unity on establishment of peace in spite of political. It also makes them think logical on values such as righteousness, justice, freedom, and dignity.   Television Advertisement Outdoor Advertisement 4.1 Power Distance Indonesia has high power distance which means there are no equivalent rights between power holders and non power holders. The employees in Indonesia are expected to be directed by the employers. Dekker in 2008 stated that power distance is represented by the social position on the basis of the authorities among the most powerful to the least powerful in their communities. It is designed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹by the government in accordance with its own conception of political ideology, socio-economic system, technical development and culture in the various member states. As part of their cultural heritage, Indonesian also has wealth inequalities in society. This is not  forced by the population, but  accepted by the community  as part of  their cultural heritage.   Managers are respected for their position and control is accepted. In Indonesia, in general seniority and elderly people play important role in the society and community; people usually respect the elderly as well as value their social status in the community. 4.2 Collectivism Indonesia has high collectivism, which means they hold their traditions tightly. Many of Indonesias ethnic groups have strong kinship groupings based upon patrilineal, matrilineal, or bilateral descent. The children are committed to their elders. Indonesia family keep their grandparents at home instead sending them to any institution. Their children want their parents life easier. Jones in 2007 assumes that this dimension gauge the level of integration of the people in the community as well as capability of the people who work in groups or individually. If one wishes to marry in Indonesia, it is important the men to meet the womens family. He has to introduce himself to the family of the woman. It is not appropriate having a relationship without notifying the parents of the girl first. Indonesias ideas about tolerance, the faith of God, social justice, human, and democracy (5 principles), to reflect the countrys way of life and the basic thinking, such as the reflection of collectivi sm ideologies are integrated. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is based on social rules and other regulations. The society practices strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for other members of their group. 4.3 Masculinity and Femininity Indonesia has both Masculinity and femininity is at the same level. Women have the same rights and opportunities in every aspect such as occupations. According to Chang in 2003 womens role changing are the factor of economy rapid growth and globalisation in Indonesia. In past women the one should care for children and does the housework where else man the one earn for the family. Now, women are becoming more adapted together with men. The principle of gender equality becomes more comfortable and treats them same as the men. This shows that the Indonesia has a degree of gender differences where both men and women dominate a significant portion of the society and power structure. This leads to women to act more as a man and away from their role as women. In Indonesia although masculinity and femininity are both in same level but men still sometimes have more power. In general, although there are traditional roles for women and men in the society these roles sometimes overlap. 4.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance explains either people feel secure or comfort with chaos, uncertain events, unstructured situation and risks. It about how Indonesian takes action in order to reach their goal and good inherent balance in controlling situation. Indonesian tends to provide and arrange everything for future events. Harris and Moran in 2006 relate the condition of uncertainty avoidance with Tolerating Ambiguity, which demotes to the ability to react to new, unpredictable situations with little visible discomfort or irritation, different and at times. This explains that there is a strong preference in Indonesia towards separation Javanese culture of external self to internal self. It is common for Indonesian not show anger even though they are really upset, no matter how angry is them they will still be polite. This means maintaining healthy relationship in work place is very important in Indonesia. This shows that the Indonesian people easily accept unstructured situations. Unstruc tured situation is a new situation, not known surprising, different from usual. Moreover, Indonesian people in general are also more comfortable with stable and predictable conditions. For example, they prefer to become civil servants rather than to become entrepreneurs although in some cases they prefer to leave everything to God for the situations that they cannot control and manipulate anymore. Another aspect of this element can be viewed at a resolution of conflicts. Direct Communication is the way to solve conflict is usually seen as a threatening and one that they are uncomfortable in. It allows exchange of views without losing face, and since one of the main manifestations of the uncertain Indonesia is to maintain a harmonious appearance in the workplace; intermediary remove uncertainties associated with confrontation. 4.5 Long Term Orientation Long term orientation is related with people through particular criteria such as obligation, reciprocal, loyalty and honesty. It is more like having good behaviours in relationship. Indonesia seems to be long term oriented. Because the hard work of people today looking forward to a long-term compensation in the Indonesian culture has a strong work ethic. Countries such as Indonesia and the Indonesian tend to have inter-religious views around the world on tolerance features. There is recognition that there are several truths on the seeker because Indonesian people embracing several different religions, such as Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, and Hinduism. The Indonesia are typically not punctual, this because they are long term orientation. Taylor in 2008 stated with highest numbers of Muslims in the world, combining Power Distance and Unaccepted Avoidance shows the Indonesian community is highly regulation oriented with controls, rules, laws and regulations. Motivating Indonesian Muslim employees would necessitate leader to give an environment of rules and guidelines to decrease uncertainty, show ultimate power and provide rewards to employee based on age, position, and status. Employees of Indonesia can be motivated by Hofstedes theory. Indonesian workers have a low tolerance for uncertainty, which Depending on tight control as a motivator. 5.0 Conclusion

Doomed From the Start Essay -- Harper Lee Kill Mockingbird Essays

Doomed From the Start Throughout the course of history, blacks have always been second to the whites. Even after the Civil War, segregation and racists groups were at large. During this time, white men were disrespectful towards black men. Groups like the K.K.K. wanted nothing less than white supremacy, and they would stop at nothing to obtain this goal. Many blacks were lynched, or even killed only because of the color of their skin. The following are examples of this; the Scottsboro case, lynching by the Klan, and many forms of segregation from the 1920’s till 1930’s. Also in Harper Lee’s book, To Kill a Mockingbird, Tom Robinson never has a chance to plead innocent because of his black skin. During the 1930’s, nine young black men were falsely accused of raping two white women on a freight train near Paint Rock, Alabama. Ruby Bates and Victoria Price accused Charlie Weems, Ozie Powell, Clarence Norris, Olen Montgomery, Willie Roberson, Haywood Patterson, Andy and Roy Wright, and Eugene Williams of this crime. The boys were arrested on March 25, 1931. All but Roy Wright were sentenced to the death penalty. They were all convicted on very little evidence. It came down to two white women’s words against the black men’s. After many lawyers failed to win the defendant’s release in 1936, a plea bargain was arranged where four of the defendants were released. However, the remaining five continued to carry out their sentence. Because there was no real evidence to keep them in jail, the last defendant was freed in 1950 (Kelly 1-2). After the Civil War, lynching was practiced by the K.K.K. Lynching is the legal execution of a person by a mob. On November 7, 1837, Elijah Parish Lovejoy, the editor of the Al... ...he balcony. This proved that the whites thought that they were better than any black man. Finally, the jury was all white. Since a white man would never believe a black man word over a white women’s word, Tom Robinson just like the Scottsboro Boys, were doomed from the start. Work Cited Kelly, Robin. "The Case of The "Scottsboro Boys"." Online posting. 23 Jun.1996. . 12 March, 2001. <http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/scottsboro.html>. Lee, Harper. To Kill A Mockingbird. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1982. Reich, Steve. "Implementation of Segregation." Online posting. 22 Feb.1996. . 12 March, 2001. <http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~south/archives/threads/segregation.html>. Simkin, John. "Lynching." Online posting. . . 12 March, 2001. <http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAlynching.htm>.

Limb Transplants -- Modern Miracle or Future Frankenstein? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Limb Transplants -- Modern Miracle or Future Frankenstein? We all know that transplants save lives. Liver, heart, renal, and other organ transplants are hardly controversial. But what happens when transplants do not save lives? What happens when they actually endanger them? At least twenty-one hands and arms have been transplanted since 1998 (and one in 1964) (1). Sure, the cosmetic and functional value of having a new hand could seem like a miracle to those without hands or arms, but do these benefits outweigh the risks? Limb attachments are not uncommon. Dr V Pathmanathan and his team, who transplanted a left arm onto baby Chong Lih Ying from her twin sister who had died at birth, had already performed over 300 such operations (2). The controversy occurs when the limb is not simply reattached, but is transplanted from one person to another. This is because limb transplant patients, like any other transplant patients, need to be given anti-rejection medication, immunosuppressive therapy (1), so that the body's immune system does not recognize the new limb's tissue as foreign and destroy it (3). In fact, Chong Lih Ying was the only limb transplant patient not to receive immunosuppressive drugs. Because her arm was transplanted from her twin, there was very little risk of rejection (2). As the name suggests, immunosuppressant drugs given to limb transplant patients greatly lower the body's immune system (4). This puts limb transplant patients at a much greater risk of cancer, infections, and other disorders (5), as has been the case in renal and liver transplants (6). Even with these drugs, the patient still has a great risk of rejection. Six weeks after Jerry Fisher's hand transplant, he had already experienced three episodes of rejection, a common and expected occurrence in limb transplant patients (7). To avoid rejection, and to regain functions of the limb, limb transplant patients must follow a strict regime of intense physical therapy. During the period immediately preceding his hand transplant, Jerry Fisher underwent a two-hour physical therapy session six days a week, as well as therapy exercises on his own every two hours (7). Even so, normal functions of the limb come slowly, and according to test results to date, a transplanted limb will never have the full function of a limb with which one was born (6). Transplant recipients must also undergo intense psychological therapy in order to view the hand as part of the self and not to associate it with the deceased body from which it came.

Political Critique of Race Relations in Alice Walkers Color Purple Ess

The Color Purple as Political Critique of Race Relations      Ã‚  Ã‚   If the integrated family of Doris Baines and her adopted African grandson exposes the missionary pattern of integration in Africa as one based on a false kinship that in fact denies the legitimacy of kinship bonds across racial lines, the relationship between Miss Sophia and her white charge, Miss Eleanor Jane, serves an analogous function for the American South. Sophia, of course, joins the mayor's household as a maid under conditions more overtly racist than Doris Baines's adoption of her Akwee family: Because she answers "hell no" (76) to Miss Millie's request that she come to work for her as a maid, Sophia is brutally beaten by the mayor and six policeman and is then imprisoned. Forced to do the jail's laundry and driven to the brink of madness, Sophia finally becomes Miss Millie's maid in order to escape prison. Sophia's violent confrontation with the white officers obviously foregrounds issues of race and class, as even critics who find these issues marginalized elsewhere in The Color Purple have noted. But it is not only through Sophia's dramatic public battles with white men that her story dramatizes issues of race and class. Her domestic relationship with Miss Eleanor Jane and the other members of the mayor's family offers a more finely nuanced and extended critique of racial integration, albeit one that has often been overlooked.(11)    Like Doris Baines and her black grandson, Sophia and Miss Eleanor Jane appear to have some genuine family feelings for one another. Since Sophia "practically . . . raise[s]" (222) Miss Eleanor Jane and is the one sympathetic person... ...nold, 1993. 85-96.    Sekora, John. "Is the Slave Narrative a Species of Autobiography?" Studies in Autobiography. Ed. James Olney. New York: Oxford UP, 1988. 99-111.    Shelton, Frank W. "Alienation and Integration in Alice Walker's The Color Purple." CLA Journal 28 (1985): 382-92.    Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. "Explanation and Culture: Marginalia." Humanities and Society 2 (1974): 201-21.    Stade, George. "Womanist Fiction and Male Characters." Partisan Review 52 (1985): 264-70.    Tate, Claudia. Domestic Allegories of Political Desire: The Black Heroine's Text at the Turn of the Century. New York: Oxford UP, 1992.    Tompkins, Jane. Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction. New York: Oxford UP, 1985.    Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. New York: Harcourt, 1982.      

Clarification Theory Essay

â€Å"Aristotle’s statement about the final end of tragedy— Purgation or Catharsis—has been so endlessly misunderstood, so uncritically assumed to be true.† Discuss. ‘Katharsis’ or ‘Catharsis’ is a word of Greek origin. In the Greek language it has three meanings—†Purgation,† â€Å"Purification,† â€Å"Clarifica ¬tion.† Aristotle uses this word in the Poetics only once. While dealing with the function of tragedy, Aristotle says only this much :— ‘’..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.through pity and fear effecting the proper Katharsis or purgation of these emotions.† But he himself does not give any meaning of the term ‘Catharsis.’ These are the later critics who have interpreted this word in various ways. And this has given birth to various theories. Let us, therefore, discuss some major theories of Catharsis. 1. The Pathological or Purgation Theory According to some Renaissance critics and later on critics like Twining and Barney, Catharsis is a medical metaphor, it denotes purgation, a pathological effect on the soul similar to the effect of medicine on the body. Just as the purgatives purge the body of the dirt and dross, similarly tragedy purges the mind of the unpleasant emotions of pity and fear by first exciting them and then providing them an emotional outlet. The result is a pleasurable relief. Milton also had explained this theory of Katharsis in his preface to Samson Agonistes. In the neo-classical era, Catharsis was taken to be an alopathic treatment with the unlike curing unlike. The arousing of pity and fear was supposed to bring about the purgation or evacuation of other emotions like anger, pride, etc. The spectacle of suffering arouses our pity and fear and we are ‘purged’ of the emotions that caused the suffering. If the suffering is caused by emotions like anger, hatred, or impiety towards the gods, we are ‘purged’ of such undesirable emotions, because we realise their evil consequences. â€Å"We learn from the terrible fates of evil men to avoid the vices they manifest.† Thomas Taylor in his introduction to the Poetics (1818) holds this view. Psychological Interpretation F.L. Lucas rejects the idea that Katharsis as used by Aristotle is a medical metaphor, and says : â€Å"theatre is not a hospital.† Both Lucas and Herbert Read regard it as a kind of safety valve. Pity and fear are aroused, we give free play to these emotions as we cannot do in real life, and this safe and free outlet of these emotions is followed by emotional relief. In real life they are repressed, and in the theatre the free indulgence in these emotions, aroused by the suffering of the hero, is safe and brings relief to our pent up souls. LA. Richards also approaches this issue from a psychological angle. Fear is the impulse to withdraw and pity is the impulse to approach. Both these impulses are harmonised and blended in tragedy, and this balance brings relief and repose. Ethical Interpretation The ethical interpretation is that the tragic process is a kind of elevation of the soul, an inner illumination resulting in a more balanced attitude to life and its suffering. Tragedy makes us realise that the divine law operates in the universe, shaping everything for the best. Purification Theory Humphrey House rejects the idea of purgation in the medical sense of the term, and is the most forceful advocate of the ‘purification’ theory, which involves the idea of moral instruction and moral learning. It is a kind of ‘moral conditioning’ which the spectators undergo. So to Humphrey House purgation means ‘cleansing’. This cleansing may be a ‘quantitative evacuation’ or a ‘qualitative change’ in the body brought about by a restoration of proper equilibrium; and a state of health depends on the maintenance of this equilibrium. Tragedy by arousing pity and fear, instead of suppressing them, trains them, and brings back the soul to a balanced state. So Humphrey House regards Katharsis as an educative, and controlling process. Thus according to the purification theory, Katharsis implies that our emotions are purified of excess and defect. Butcher, too, :grees with the advocates of the ‘purification theory1, when he writes, â€Å"the tragic Katharsis involves not only the idea of emotional relief, but the further idea of purifying the emotions so relieved.† Inadequacy of above Theories : Clarification However neither the purgation theory nor purification theory explains the whole thing. The basic defect of these theories is that they are too much occupied with the psychology of the audience, with speculation regarding the effect of tragedy on those who come to the theatre. It is forgotten that Aristotle was writing a treatise, not on psychology, but on the art of poetry. He is more â€Å"concerned with the technique, the way in which an ideal tragedy can be written, and its nature, than’ with its psychological effects. For this reason, eminent modern critics like Leon Golden, O.B. Hardison and G.E. Else advocate the ‘clarification theory.’ According to O.B. Hardison, Aristotle meant pleasure by Katharsis. In his opinion, tragic events are pitiable and fearful. They produce pleasure in the spectator. Hence Catharsis refers to the tragic variety of pleasure. In order to create a tragic pleasure, a tragic poet may begin by select ¬ing a series of incidents that are intrinsically pitiable and fearful. From history or legend, he may borrow material or invent events. â€Å"He then presents them in such a way as to bring out the probable or necessary principles that unite them in a single action and determine their relation to this action ‘Thus catharsis means clarification of the essential and universal significance of the incidents depicted, leading to an enhanced understanding of the universal law which governs human life and des ¬tiny. ‘Catharsis’ is a process of learning, and therefore, pleasurable.’ The Clarification theory has, in this way, various good points in it. (1) It interprets the Catharsis clause as a reference to the technique of the tragedy, and not to the psychology of the audience, and thus recognises the true nature of the Poetics as a technique treatise. (2) It truly interprets Aristotle’s view, contained in his Poetics. (3) It relates catharsis both to the theory of imitation and to the discussion of probability. (4) It is in perfect accordance with current aesthetic theories. Conclusion Purgation and Purification theories are merely incidental. They do not remain authentic and authoritative for long, because the basic tragic emotions are pity and fear. If tragedy is to give pleasure—pleasure that comes from learning—the pity and fear, or atleast the painful element, in them, must be removed. Though there may be purgation in the feelings of pity and fear, but â€Å"it is merely incidental, and secondary.† (O.B. Hardison). Thus Aristotle’s view of Catharsis is mainly intellectual. It is neither didactic nor theological. It is not a moral doctrine requiring the tragic poet to show that bad men come to bed ends, nor is it a kind of theological relief arising from the discovery that God’s laws operate invisibly to make all things work out for the best. POINTS TO REMEMBER 1. â€Å"Catharsis† means purgation, purification, or clarification. 2. Though Aristotle uses the term catharsis only once yet it has given currency to a number of theories. 3. The main theories of Catharsis are—the purgation, the psychological, the ethical, the purification and the clarification. 4. The purgation or pathological theory treats catharsis as something having a pathological effect—on the soul similar to the effect of medicine on the body. Tragedy purges the mind of the unpleasant emotions of pity and fear. 5. The psychological interpretation offered by Lucas, Read and Richards says that tragedy by arousing pity and fear provides emotional outlet to the audience. 6. The ethical interpretation says that the tragic process is a kind of elevation to soul. 7. The Purification Theory presented by Humphrey House says that catharsis means cleansing or purification of emotions of excess and defect. 8. All the above theories are inadequate. Hence the necessit y of Clarification Theory by Golden, Hardison and Else. Aristotle was writing about art and poetry. Hence by Catharsis he meant aesthetic pleasure.